History of Sewerage

The creation of sewerage systems is traditionally attributed to the ancient Romans. However, few know that the earliest structures, discovered by archaeologists, date back to 2600 BCE and belong to an ancient civilization that thrived in what is now modern India. Specifically, during excavations in the city of Mohenjo-Daro, structures were found that scholars classified as sewerage systems. Of course, those structures were far from perfect and bore little resemblance to their modern counterparts. Roman sewerage, like their aqueducts, is a direct predecessor of the sewerage systems we use today. In essence, it has not changed much—except for becoming more sealed and utilizing modern materials for construction.

Moreover, unlike the ancient Indians, the Romans left behind written records, deciphered by experts. The Romans called their sewerage construction project the “Cloaca Maxima” (Great Sewer). Day and night, slaves worked on creating this magnificent feat of engineering. Great attention was paid to the terrain, groundwater, and soil characteristics during construction. Pumps were used to lift water in certain areas before allowing it to flow downward. Through this entire system, lead pipes carried waste from Roman households into a large underground reservoir. Periodically, the reservoir was cleaned, and its contents were dumped into bodies of water, most often rivers with flowing water. The Cloaca Maxima still exists today, now used as a stormwater drainage system. Following the Roman example, sewerage systems began to be built much later in China, Greece, and Egypt. Egyptian and Greek sewerage systems were quite similar to the Roman ones, as they were derived from them. China, however, had its own approach to constructing such systems, and initially, sewerage did not gain widespread use there.

With the onset of the so-called “barbarian era,” Europe began to drown in filth. The grand Roman cities lay in ruins, along with their water supply and drainage systems. Using the toilet was considered highly shameful, so no new systems were built. Waste was dumped directly onto the streets, leading to massive loss of life due to plague and cholera. The enormous number of epidemic victims could no longer be ignored, but progress was slow and took centuries to gain momentum. A significant catalyst was the cholera epidemic, which occurred relatively recently—in 1830, first in Germany and later in Russia.

In Ancient Rus, there were also sewerage systems, though initially only in two cities—Kyiv and Novgorod—which had close ties with the Western world and adopted its technologies. Structurally, these systems were quite similar to Roman ones, but due to the lack of tradition in using metal and stone among the Slavs, most components were made of wood. The Mongol-Tatar invasions did not significantly impact toilet usage culture, as it was well-developed in the Horde, unlike among the Goths, Huns, and Germanic tribes who had previously conquered prosperous Europe.

After the end of the Mongol yoke, the coronation of Ivan the Terrible, and the subsequent Time of Troubles, sewerage systems were largely neglected. Polish expansion and the struggle for the throne preoccupied people far more. Frequent changes in rulers also diverted attention from drainage issues. Diseases did not take long to appear, and the situation remained critical until the time of Peter the Great. Even during Peter’s era, little changed. Toilets were installed in cities, but even imperial residences sometimes lacked proper facilities. In villages, toilets were placed haphazardly without regard for consequences, resulting in the contamination of drinking water sources, soil pollution, and new waves of mass deaths.

By the late 19th century, cities faced a shortage of clean water. Fountains were installed to somewhat provide the population with drinking water, but even in Moscow, the number of such fountains could be counted on one hand, and the water quality was questionable. Essentially, it was just pumped water from the Moscow River, the quality of which deteriorated as the issue of waste remained unresolved. Only on the eve of the revolution did sewerage finally appear in Moscow within the Garden Ring.

Today, fortunately, sewerage no longer carries any negative connotations and has become an essential part of our lives. UNESCO even established a commemorative day—November 19, officially named “World Toilet Day.” Several museums dedicated to toilet culture have been opened worldwide, with one of the oldest located in Japan, where five ancient toilets are recognized as national treasures. It can confidently be said that Japanese toilets today are a separate and significant topic. No other country pays as much attention to this aspect of daily life.

The world is advancing when it comes to sewerage and toilets, and this progress is happening faster than one might have predicted. Even in villages, preference is now given to bio-toilets, pushing unsanitary cesspits into the background. Toilets can now be controlled by computers. Importantly, sewerage pumps are being improved, as modern people often flush items down the toilet that should not be there.